China's Energy Policy from National and International Perspectives: The Energy Revolution and One Belt One Road Initiative | 誠品線上

China's Energy Policy from National and International Perspectives: The Energy Revolution and One Belt One Road Initiative

內容簡介

內容簡介 Before 2000, roughly 96% of China’s energy demands were met domestically. Since 2001, however, this position of near self-reliance has changed. With steadily increasing demands, China’s need for foreign energy has grown. Today, China is the world’s biggest energy consumer and emitter of greenhouse gases. Building upon the first volume, which examined China’s energy plans, this book will examine the strategies China has taken to meet its burgeoning energy demands, continue its fast-paced economic growth and also address the mounting concerns about environmental welfare and the true cost of China’s development. With new chapters addressing international agreements, the so-called “China energy threat” and the Belt and Road Initiative, this volume will continue to discuss and interpret both domestic policies and China’s international role.

作者介紹

作者介紹 ■作者簡介Qinhua XUQinhua XU is a professor at the School of International Studies of the Renmin University of China. She is also the director of the Center for International Energy and Environment Strategy Studies of the University. She has been working for more than twenty years in various academic and research institutions in Asia, Europe and the United States. William CHUNGWilliam CHUNG is associate professor of Management Sciences at City University of Hong Kong. He earned his PhD in Management Sciences at the University of Waterloo, Canada. His personal research interests mainly focus on developing mathematical methodologies for energy-environmental policy problems, like large-scale equilibrium models, benchmarking methods for the energy consumption performance of buildings, and decomposition analysis of energy intensity.

產品目錄

產品目錄 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. Background and Motivation 2. Preliminaries 3. Gaps in Understanding Key Notions Chapter 2 The Energy System and Policies before the Twelfth Five-Year Plan 1. Energy Development by Sector 2. Past Five-Year Plans and Energy Policies 3. Change in Energy Mix, Energy Intensity and Environmental Effects Chapter 3 Effects of the Twelfth Five-Year Plan Energy Policy 1. Understanding the Background to theTwelfth Five-Year Plan Energy Policies 2. Energy Mix, Energy Intensity and Environmental Effects Chapter 4 China’s Energy Evolution and Revolution 1. The Hard Road of Reforming the Power and Natural Gas Sectors 2. China’s Energy Revolution 3. Conclusion Chapter 5 The Evolution of China’s Foreign Energy Policy 1. The National Energy Security Situation and the Effect on Foreign Energy Policy 2. Changes in Foreign Energy Policy 3. Twenty-Year Review of China’s Foreign Energy Policy Implementation 4. China’s Foreign Energy Policies by Region 5. Remarks Chapter 6 Energy Cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative 1. Major Changes in the Global Oil Market and its Implications for China 2. China-Russia Oil and Natural Gas Cooperation: the Geopolitical Impact 3. Expected Benefits and Potential Risks of Energy Cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative

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內文 : Basic Information about China’s
Energy Development

The introduction of a carbon trading market in China shows that
environmental concerns are not only a restraint on Chinese energy policy,
but they are becoming one of the three key aspects in energy policy.
These aspects are energy security; environment and climate; and foreign
relations. The three are interrelated and mutually supportive of each other
with the main purpose of maintaining the sustainable development of the
Chinese economy.

Since the end of 2012, China has been one of the world’s largest energy
producer. As its economic status rises dramatically, China has become
the focus of the world, feeling more strongly its citizens’ yearning for
environmental safety while experiencing the challenges of coping with
climate change.

By the end of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan in 2010, China’s energy
industry had seen substantial development: total production quantity of
primary energy had increased from 2.16 billion tons of standard coal in
2005 to 2.97 billion tons. The energy self-supply rate had reached 91%. The
proportion of renewable energy in primary energy had risen from 7.4%
in 2005 to 9.4% in 2010, and non-fossil fueled energy from 6.8% to 8.6%.
China had developed its overseas oil and gas cooperation with Central Asia,
Russia, the Middle East, Africa, South America and the Asia-Pacific region,
and gradual growth had been seen in overseas equity oil production.
Energy intensity had decreased by 19.1%.

Regarding the coal industry, China’s difficulty is that the coalfields are
located far away from the consuming areas. Transportation has been a great
challenge for energy security. China has also started to import coal from
Southeast Asia and in significant amounts from Australia, which improves overseas cooperation. As a result, China has become more dependent
on overseas coal. With regard to the power supply industry, investment
in electric power has reached 1,200 billion yuan, with the completion of
a 653.8 kilometer extra-high-voltage model electric network from Shanxi
to Hubei via Henan. However, further testing of its safety, economic value,
technical obstacles and reliability is required. In the oil and gas industry,
dependence on overseas supply of crude oil has reached nearly 60%.
The present petroleum reserve capacity is 28.6 million square meters
(National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China) (from 16.4
million square meters) after the second construction phase was finished
in mid-2015. The resulting net import of petroleum has been increased to
approximately forty days, still far from the ninety days suggested by the
International Energy Agency. China started to import natural gas in 2006
and the year 2007 saw its net import of natural gas. Coping with climate
change, environmental protection and a market-oriented energy industry
motivated China to develop natural gas imports, including liquid natural
gas (LNG), and reduce coal use. The growing dependence on natural gas
imports has caused concern from the domestic coal industry, and from
those who advocate continuous development of nuclear power and shale
gas to reduce the dependence on overseas natural gas.

A variety of energy cultures exist in the world due to the different
development levels of economies and energy industries, ways of using
energy, diverse cultural and historic backgrounds, living and production
environments, foreign strategies, and political and economic systems.
China has its own special interpretation of some key terms and concepts
like energy security, energy efficiency, energy law, energy independence,
dependence on overseas supply, foreign policy on energy, state-owned
company, international energy cooperation and energy shortage etc.,
which display a profoundly distinct Chinese energy culture.

There was no change in the nature of the Chinese energy structure from
1993 to 2011, and no obvious increase in total production of domestic
green energy. The security of supply of petroleum and natural gas became
a prominent issue, which was to be resolved by the energy policies of the Twelfth Five-Year Plan (FYP). With the aid of low oil and gas prices and
the optimization of energy mix with the increased ratio of NRE (new and
renewable energy) during the Twelfth FYP period, the problem of supply
security was alleviated in the short-term, however, for long-term security,
China is still awaiting the real energy revolution.

There are regional differences in the changes in Chinese energy
efficiency, which are also reflected in the different levels of carbon
emissions. The improvement of energy efficiency has indeed had a
positive influence on the environment. Regarding power generation, the
Chinese government has implemented four policies. The first is to reduce
thermal coal use in power plants and increase natural gas use, leading to a
continuous decrease in oil power generation and a rapid increase in other
fuels. This trend is clearly evident in the central, eastern and southern parts
of China but is less obvious in the northern part. The second is to advocate
energy-saving and emission reduction technology in power plants, such as
the use of smoke and gas desulphurization etc. The third is to encourage
the building of power plants over 600,000 kilowatts (kW) in scale, to
replace small and low efficiency generating units. The fourth is to impose
incentives like emissions taxation. Increased energy efficiency and energymix
change reduced carbon emissions by 10.7% and 10.41% respectively
from 2004 to 2010. The transport sector has played the most important
role in reducing greenhouse gases. The authorities responsible for different
types of transportation (sea, air, road and railway) have issued various laws
to improve efficiency and decrease emissions. These laws are less effective
in the eastern region due to its denser population than in the central and
western regions, and in particular more effective in the central region than
the western region whose transportation infrastructure is less developed.

The greatest overall improvement in energy efficiency has been in
power generation, and less improvement has been made in mining,
chemical, steel, iron and non-metal industries. In the Twelfth Five-Year Plan,
China aimed to achieve an 8% decrease in sulphur dioxide emissions, 10%
in nitrogen monoxide and 17% in carbon intensity compared with 2010.
Of all the areas of energy consumption, transportation has the greatest potential for emissions reduction. According to official data (xinhuanet.
com) these aims were fulfilled: 18.0% decrease in sulphur dioxide; 18.6%
decrease in nitrogen monoxide; 20% decrease in carbon intensity.

The Chinese government plans three phases for future energy
development. Up to 2030, energy consumption will be mainly derived
from fossil fuels with new and renewable energy sources playing an
increasingly close second. From 2030 to 2050, consumption will be split
evenly between fossil fuels and renewable energy sources. After 2050,
renewable energy will prevail while fossil energy will play a secondary role.
To fulfil this grand plan, optimizing energy structure, improving energy
efficiency and advocating clean energy use will be key strategies of the
Chinese government.

For many years now, China has faced three types of structural conflicts
in energy development, namely the conflict between sustainable energy
needs and severe shortage of resources per capita, the long-term conflict
between coal-oriented energy and low carbon development, and the
conflict between the high energy intensity of fossil fuel usage and the
more demanding requirements of the ecological environment. The Twelfth
Five-Year Plan was considered as an important phase for the Chinese
government to adjust economic development patterns. These conflicts
will be more prominent in the process of economic transition in which “the
market plays the decisive role”, as stated in the proclamation of the Third
Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee.

The Twelfth Five-Year Plan of Chinese Energy Development issued on
January 1, 2013 confirmed the key goals and gave priority to clean energy
use and increased energy efficiency: energy intensity was planned to be
reduced by 16% from 2010 to 2015. Energy consumption was planned
to be 400 million tons of standard coal, 366 millions of which was for selfsupply.
Power consumption was planned to be 6,150 billion kilowatt hours
(kWh). Energy efficiency was planned to increase by 38%. The proportion
of non-fossil fuels in primary energy was planned to grow to 11.4%, with
natural gas accounting for 7.5%. Carbon emissions were planned to be reduced by 17% compared with 2005, and pollutant emissions to fall by
10%.

It was hard for China to achieve its ambitious increase of renewable
energy production by 2015, for most of the renewable energy is used
in power generation. As a result, 11.4% growth in renewables requires
an increase of 200% in alternative sources such as nuclear, wind power,
bioenergy and solar energy. The planned 16% decrease in energy not
only required local governments’ efficient enforcement of the central
government policies but also for GDP growth to remain around 8%. In the
near future, coal will still dominate, representing approximately half of the
Chinese energy structure. Environmental profits from the energy policy
will depend on the implementation of the policy. However, it was reported
that China’s solar and wind energy capacity increased by 74% and 34%,
respectively, in 2015 (cleantechnica.com).

The supply of China’s petroleum and natural gas has, for a long time,
been insufficient to meet consumption demands. China became a net
importer of refined oil products in 1993 and of crude oil in 1996. Since
the 1990s, Chinese enterprises have followed the Going Out strategy and
proactively developed a global plan in order to fulfil the requirements of
“making full use of two kinds of resources and tw